The Dharana Dhyana and Samadhi final three limbs of Patanjali’s aṣṭāṅga yoga – Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (absorption) – constitute what classical texts call antaraṅga sādhana (inner practices) or saṃyama (unified mastery), representing the progressive stages through which consciousness moves from scattered distraction to complete realization of its own nature.
While these three Sanskrit terms often get used interchangeably in contemporary discourse, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras draw precise distinctions between them, describing a natural progression where concentration leads to meditation, meditation deepens into absorption, and absorption ultimately reveals the eternal witness beyond all experience. For serious practitioners in 2025 seeking to understand the authentic yogic path beyond physical postures and stress relief, grasping these distinctions becomes essential, as they clarify both the journey’s destination and the specific stages along the way, preventing confusion while supporting appropriate practice at each developmental level.
The Three Inner Limbs: An Overview
Before exploring each stage individually, understanding their collective nature and relationship to the outer limbs provides essential context for appreciating their progressive development.
From External to Internal Practice
Patanjali’s eight limbs divide into two distinct categories. The first five – yama (ethical restraints), niyama (observances), āsana (posture), prāṇāyāma (breath control), and pratyāhāra (sensory withdrawal) – constitute external limbs (bahiraṅga sādhana) that prepare the practitioner by purifying conduct, strengthening the body, regulating vital energy, and withdrawing senses from compulsive external engagement.
The final three – Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi – represent internal limbs (antaraṅga sādhana) directly engaged with consciousness transformation itself. Yoga Sutra 3.7 explicitly states: trayam antar aṅgaṁ pūrvebhyaḥ – “These three are more internal than the previous ones.” While the outer limbs work with body, breath, and senses, the inner limbs work exclusively with consciousness, progressively refining awareness until it recognizes its own true nature.
However, even these three internal limbs remain “external” compared to the highest formless absorption (nirbīja samādhi). Sutra 3.8 states: tad api bahir aṅgaṁ nirbījasya – “Even these three are external to seedless samadhi.” This indicates that the journey continues beyond even the refined stages of concentration, meditation, and absorption to ultimate liberation where consciousness transcends all objects entirely.
Dharana Dhyana and Samadhi Samyama The Unified Practice
Collectively, these three limbs constitute saṃyama – a technical term meaning “constraint,” “control,” or “unified mastery” referring to the complete practice of concentration, meditation, and absorption directed toward a single object. Sutra 3.4 states: trayam ekatra saṃyamaḥ – “These three together constitute samyama.”
When consciousness can establish Dharana on an object, maintain that focus into Dhyana, and deepen that meditation into Samadhi – all directed toward the same object – saṃyama occurs. This unified mastery produces prajñā (transcendent wisdom) regarding the object’s true nature. Sutra 3.5 declares: taj-jayāt prajñālokaḥ – “From mastery of that (samyama), the light of wisdom dawns.”
Classical texts describe how samyama directed toward various objects produces specific powers (siddhis) and knowledge. However, the ultimate purpose isn’t acquiring powers but rather progressively refining consciousness until it recognizes itself as the eternal witness (draṣṭṛ) beyond all objects, whether gross or subtle.
Progressive Deepening
The crucial understanding involves recognizing that Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi don’t constitute three separate practices but rather three stages of the same process – progressive depths of consciousness engagement with an object. You practice Dharana (concentration); when that practice perfects itself through sustained effort, it naturally becomes Dhyana (meditation); when meditation deepens sufficiently, it transforms into Samadhi (absorption).
This progression resembles water’s states – ice, liquid water, and steam represent the same H₂O at different temperatures rather than different substances. Similarly, concentrated attention, meditative absorption, and samadhi consciousness represent the same awareness at progressively deeper levels. The transitions occur naturally through practice and grace rather than through separate techniques.
Understanding this progression prevents the common error of attempting to “do” meditation or samadhi through specific techniques. You can only practice concentration (Dharana) with proper effort; meditation and absorption arise naturally when conditions mature sufficiently, much as fruit ripens when season arrives rather than through forcing.
Dharana: Concentration
The first of the three inner limbs, Dharana establishes the foundational capacity for sustained attention essential for all subsequent development.
Defining Characteristics
Yoga Sutra 3.1 provides the precise definition: deśa-bandhaś cittasya dhāraṇā – “Dharana is the binding of consciousness to a single place.” This “place” (deśa) can be physical (like the heart center or space between eyebrows), a sensory object (like breath or mantra), or even a concept (like divine qualities).
The key term “bandha” (binding) describes consciousness held steady on the chosen focal point. However, this “binding” differs fundamentally from forced suppression or violent restraint. Rather, it represents attention learning to rest naturally where directed rather than constantly wandering according to habit and distraction.
Effortful maintenance characterizes Dharana practice. Attention must be continuously and deliberately returned to the object when it wanders – and wander it will, frequently and persistently, especially initially. The practitioner consciously notices when focus has drifted into thoughts, memories, plans, or distractions, then gently returns attention to the chosen object. This cycle – focus, wander, notice, return – repeats countless times during Dharana practice.
This effort distinguishes Dharana from Dhyana. In concentration, you’re aware of three things: the object of focus, the act of focusing, and yourself as the one focusing. Subject (meditator), process (focusing), and object (what’s focused upon) remain distinct and clearly differentiated. Mental exertion maintains the focus against mind’s habitual restlessness.
The Practice Experience
During Dharana practice, the experience involves constant vigilance. Attention rests on the object – perhaps the breath’s sensation at nostrils – for a few seconds or minutes, then suddenly you realize awareness has drifted into thinking about dinner plans, reliving a past conversation, or planning tomorrow’s schedule. Upon noticing this wandering, you consciously redirect attention back to breath sensation.
This happens repeatedly – sometimes returning focus hundreds of times during a single session. Rather than indicating failure, this endless returning actually constitutes the practice itself. Each return strengthens concentration capacity like a repetition strengthens muscle. The wandering mind isn’t a problem to solve but rather the condition providing opportunity for training attention.
Peripheral thoughts may arise even while primary attention remains with the object. You’re aware of breath sensation while also dimly noticing the thought “I should call my mother” or feeling a slight itch on your leg. These peripheral arisings don’t immediately hijack attention but create background noise somewhat distracting from complete absorption. This characterizes Dharana – focus exists but remains imperfect, partially disturbed by competing mental activity.
Over time with consistent practice, several developments occur: The duration attention remains with the object before wandering extends progressively from seconds to minutes. The speed of noticing wandering accelerates – you catch drift more quickly. The return to focus becomes smoother and quicker. Peripheral disturbances decrease as attention narrows naturally toward the object. Yet throughout Dharana stage, effort remains necessary to maintain focus.
Dhyana: Meditation
When concentration practice perfects itself sufficiently, a qualitative transformation occurs where effortful focus becomes effortless absorption – this marks the transition from Dharana to Dhyana.
Defining Characteristics
Yoga Sutra 3.2 defines meditation: tatra pratyayaikatānatā dhyānam – “Dhyana is the continuous flow of the same thought-content toward the object.” Breaking down this sutra illuminates meditation’s nature:
Tatra means “there” – in that same place/object where Dharana was established. Pratyaya refers to the mental content or cognition of the object. Ekatānatā combines eka (one) with tānatā (stream, flow, continuity), indicating unbroken continuous flow like oil poured steadily from one container to another.
The essential difference from Dharana: In meditation, attention flows continuously toward the object without interruption, without conscious effort to maintain focus, and without competing mental activity. Commentator Vyasa explains that while Dharana involves maintaining focus despite peripheral thoughts, Dhyana consists of a single continuous stream of awareness undisturbed by any different mental content.
Effortless continuity characterizes meditation. You’re no longer working to maintain focus; attention naturally remains with the object like a river flowing smoothly in its channel. While in Dharana you must repeatedly return wandering attention, in Dhyana attention doesn’t wander – it rests steadily and naturally on the object without requiring conscious maintenance.
The three-fold structure present in Dharana begins dissolving. Rather than clearly experiencing yourself as meditator, the act of meditating, and the meditation object as three distinct things, these begin merging. The sense of being a separate self consciously directing attention toward an external object diminishes. Awareness flows continuously toward the object so steadily that the subjective sense of “I am meditating” recedes.
The Practice Experience
Dhyana arrives unexpectedly, not through trying but through the maturation of consistent Dharana practice. One day during concentration practice, you notice that attention has been resting steadily on the breath for extended periods without any sense of effort or struggle. There’s no periodic returning from wandering because wandering hasn’t occurred. Awareness flows continuously with the breath’s movement like two streams merging into one current.
The experience carries distinctive peace and satisfaction. Unlike Dharana’s sometimes frustrating effort against resistance, Dhyana feels natural and pleasant – the mind has found its natural resting place and settles there contentedly. Time perception often shifts; what feels like minutes may actually be much longer, indicating how absorbed awareness has become.
Subject-object distinction softens though remains present. You’re still aware of yourself as the one experiencing breath, but this awareness has become much subtler, less prominent. Increasingly, there’s just the experience of breathing – awareness and breath flowing together without sharp separation. Yet complete unity hasn’t occurred; some subtle distinction remains between experiencer and experience.
Important distinction: Dhyana maintains full awareness. This isn’t drowsiness, blankness, or unconscious absorption. Consciousness remains lucid and clear, actually more alert than usual, but the alertness no longer fragments into thinking, analyzing, or wandering. Pure sustained awareness directed toward the object characterizes meditation.
The practitioner cannot “do” Dhyana deliberately. You can only practice Dharana consistently with proper effort and patience; when that practice sufficiently prepares consciousness, Dhyana spontaneously emerges as concentration’s natural fruition. Trying to force meditation before concentration stabilizes merely creates frustration or simulated states lacking authentic depth.
Samadhi: Absorption
When meditation deepens beyond even the subtle awareness of meditating, consciousness enters Samadhi – the culminating stage where subject-object distinction dissolves into complete absorption.
Defining Characteristics
Yoga Sutra 3.3 defines absorption: tad evārthamātranirbhāsaṁ svarūpaśūnyam iva samādhiḥ – “Samadhi is that same meditation when only the object shines forth, as if empty of its own form.”
Breaking down this complex sutra: Tad eva means “that same” – the same continuous flow that characterized Dhyana. Arthamātra means “object alone” or “only the essential nature of the object.” Nirbhāsam means “shining forth.” Svarūpaśūnyam iva means “as if empty of its own form” – the meditator’s sense of separate self-form disappears.
The profound shift: In Samadhi, only the object of meditation remains in consciousness – not your awareness OF the object, not yourself as separate meditator, but simply the object shining alone in awareness. The distinction between knower, knowing, and known collapses. Commentator Shankara explains this beautifully: meditation “becomes radiant as the form of the object, just as a clear crystal shines out as the material on which it has been placed.”
Complete absorption means consciousness has merged with the meditation object so thoroughly that no sense of being a separate experiencer remains. There’s no one watching the breath anymore; consciousness HAS BECOME breathing itself. There’s no one contemplating the divine form; consciousness HAS BECOME that form. Subject and object unite in a single awareness where previous duality has dissolved.
This doesn’t mean unconsciousness or blank void. Rather, supreme consciousness prevails – awareness shining brilliantly but without the fragmentation of subject-object separation. The meditator becomes “empty of form” not through annihilation but through transcendence of the limited personal identity that seemed separate from experience.
Types of Samadhi
Classical yoga distinguishes several progressive levels of Samadhi, each representing deeper absorption:
Savikalpa Samādhi (absorption with form/content) includes four progressive stages:
Savitarka samādhi – absorption with gross object where awareness merges with physical objects like elements, breath, or external forms. Subtle mental associations about the object’s name, qualities, and knowledge still arise.
Nirvitarka samādhi – absorption where gross object alone remains without conceptual associations. Only direct perception of the object’s essential nature exists, free from verbal and conceptual overlay.
Savichāra samādhi – absorption with subtle object like time, space, or subtle elements. Even more refined than gross object absorption.
Nirvichāra samādhi – absorption where even subtle associations dissolve, leaving only the subtle object’s essential reality.
Nirvikalpa Samādhi (formless absorption) or Nirbīja Samādhi (seedless absorption) represents the ultimate stage where consciousness transcends all objects entirely, resting in its own nature alone. No object of meditation remains; consciousness knows only itself, experiencing its eternal nature as pure awareness beyond all content, all experience, all modification.
This highest absorption produces permanent transformation. Upon emerging, consciousness recognizes itself as the eternal witness (draṣṭṛ) that has been present throughout all experiences while remaining forever free from what it witnesses. This constitutes kaivalya – absolute liberation, the ultimate goal of yoga.
The Practice Experience
Samadhi cannot be adequately described in words because it transcends the subject-object structure upon which language depends. Accounts from practitioners who experience absorption consistently emphasize certain qualities:
Timelessness – The usual sense of time passing completely disappears. What objective clock-time measures as minutes or hours feels simultaneously like no time and infinite time. The temporal awareness structuring ordinary experience dissolves.
Ineffability – Upon returning to ordinary consciousness, the experience resists description. Language requires subject-object distinction while Samadhi transcends this duality. Attempts to describe it sound paradoxical: “There was experience but no experiencer,” “Awareness remained but without anyone aware,” “Everything existed and nothing existed.”
Bliss beyond pleasure – Samadhi involves ānanda (bliss) fundamentally different from ordinary pleasure. Rather than sensation dependent on stimuli, this represents consciousness’s inherent nature when freed from limitation. It’s not happiness about something but rather the eternal contentment of being itself.
Certainty upon emergence – Despite inability to adequately describe the experience, one knows with complete certainty something profound occurred. This isn’t vague feeling but rather direct knowledge comparable to knowing you just tasted salt – undeniable, self-evident, requiring no external validation.
Lasting transformation – Genuine Samadhi, particularly deeper stages, produces permanent shifts in understanding and identity. Previous anxieties, compulsions, and identifications lose their grip. A fundamental peace establishes itself as the baseline regardless of external circumstances.
Comparing the Three Stages
Understanding the specific differences between Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi clarifies appropriate practice and prevents confusion about one’s current stage.
Effort vs. Effortlessness
Dharana requires constant effort – repeatedly returning wandering attention, consciously maintaining focus, working against the mind’s habitual restlessness. The practitioner actively does something throughout the practice.
Dhyana becomes effortless – attention naturally remains with the object without needing conscious maintenance. Rather than working to focus, you’re simply present with the object as awareness flows continuously without interruption. The doing dissolves into being.
Samadhi transcends both effort and effortlessness – these categories no longer apply because the doer has merged with what’s done. There’s no one left to make effort or not make effort; only the unified experience remains.
Subject-Object Relationship
In Dharana, three clearly exist: you (subject), the act of concentrating (process), and the focus object. These remain distinctly separate throughout practice, with sharp boundaries between meditator, meditation, and meditated-upon.
In Dhyana, these three begin blurring. The sense of being separate meditator consciously directing attention softens. Increasingly, there’s just the flowing experience of awareness with object, though subtle distinction between experiencer and experienced remains.
In Samadhi, subject-object duality collapses entirely. No separate meditator exists apart from the meditation object. Consciousness and object merge into single unified experience where previous separation reveals itself as illusory appearance.
Continuity of Awareness
Dharana involves interrupted awareness – attention repeatedly breaks from the object into thoughts, memories, or distractions, then consciously returns. The stream breaks constantly, creating discontinuous awareness characterized by ongoing struggle.
Dhyana produces continuous awareness – like oil poured in steady stream, attention flows unbroken toward the object. No gaps occur, no wandering happens, no returning proves necessary. The stream remains stable and constant.
Samadhi involves supreme awareness – beyond even the concept of continuous flow because the distinction between awareness flowing and object receiving flow has dissolved. Only unified consciousness remains, beyond categories of continuous or discontinuous.
Accompanying Mental Activity
During Dharana, numerous thoughts, sensations, and mental movements arise alongside the primary focus. While attention directs toward the object, peripheral awareness notices itches, sounds, thoughts, and various mental content competing for attention.
During Dhyana, competing mental activity ceases. A single continuous cognition of the object occupies consciousness without intrusion of different thoughts. The mind has become ekāgra (one-pointed) – not through force but through natural settling.
In Samadhi, even the meditation’s content disappears. Not only do competing thoughts cease, but the very structure of subject contemplating object dissolves. Pure consciousness alone remains, beyond all content, all experience, all modification.
Knowing You’re Meditating
In Dharana, you constantly know “I am trying to concentrate on this object.” This meta-awareness of practicing remains consistently present throughout the session.
In Dhyana, you still know “I am meditating” but this knowledge has become much subtler, background rather than foreground. The meditation itself occupies consciousness more than awareness of meditating.
In Samadhi, you don’t know you’re in Samadhi while it occurs. Only upon returning to ordinary consciousness does recognition arise: “That was Samadhi.” As teachers explain: “In dhyana, you are there, knowing that you are in meditation. But in samadhi, you don’t even know that. You are not there to know it because you are that.”
Practical Implications
Understanding these distinctions clarifies appropriate practice while preventing common errors that impede development.
Meet Yourself Where You Are
Most practitioners, regardless of meditation experience, primarily practice Dharana – returning wandering attention repeatedly to the chosen object. This remains true even after years or decades of consistent practice. Accept this reality rather than pretending to be further along than actual experience indicates.
Dharana IS the practice available to most of us most of the time. Rather than feeling discouraged that you’re “only” at the concentration stage, recognize that genuine Dharana practice – sustained, patient, consistent return of attention – provides the only foundation from which Dhyana and Samadhi can naturally emerge.
Don’t Try to Skip Stages
Common error: attempting to “do” meditation or samadhi without establishing concentration capacity. This produces either frustration (when nothing happens) or simulated states (when imagination creates experiences matching descriptions but lacking authentic depth).
You cannot make meditation happen through techniques or force. Dhyana arises naturally and spontaneously when Dharana sufficiently prepares consciousness. Similarly, Samadhi emerges through Dhyana’s deepening, not through attempting absorption techniques.
The appropriate practice: Focus on Dharana. Practice concentration consistently, patiently, persistently. Trust that when conditions mature sufficiently, meditation will naturally emerge without needing separate technique. When meditation deepens sufficiently, Samadhi will spontaneously occur without needing forced entry.
Recognize Temporary Glimpses
Even while primarily practicing Dharana, occasional brief moments of Dhyana or even Samadhi may occur – flashes of effortless absorption lasting seconds before returning to ordinary consciousness. These glimpses prove significant, providing experiential taste of what practice aims toward, but they don’t indicate stable achievement of those stages.
Appreciate glimpses without clinging to them or demanding their repetition. They serve as encouragement showing the path’s reality while confirming that continued practice produces genuine transformation. But return to basic Dharana practice rather than chasing special experiences.
Integration with Life
While Dhyana and Samadhi remain primarily meditation-experience, Dharana capacity transfers directly to daily life. The concentration muscle developed through practice applies to work, reading, conversation, creative endeavors – any activity benefiting from sustained attention.
Modern life’s fragmentation makes concentration capacity increasingly rare and valuable. By developing genuine Dharana through meditation practice, you simultaneously enhance effectiveness in all life domains while laying foundation for deeper spiritual realization.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can I practice Dhyana directly or must I start with Dharana?
You cannot practice Dhyana directly because meditation isn’t a technique you “do” but rather a state that emerges naturally when concentration matures sufficiently. All you can consciously practice is Dharana – establishing and maintaining focus on an object. When that practice deepens enough through consistent effort, Dhyana spontaneously arises. Attempting to “do” meditation before establishing concentration merely creates frustration or simulated states lacking authentic depth.
How do I know if I’ve experienced Dhyana or Samadhi?
Dhyana involves continuous effortless focus where attention no longer wanders, competing thoughts cease, and awareness flows unbroken toward the object while you remain aware of meditating. Samadhi involves complete absorption where even awareness of being a meditator disappears – only the object (or pure consciousness) remains. Importantly, you won’t know you’re in Samadhi while it occurs; only upon returning to ordinary consciousness does recognition arise. If during practice you’re thinking “Am I in Samadhi now?” – you’re not; that thought itself indicates ordinary consciousness remains.
How long does it take to progress from Dharana to Dhyana?
Varies tremendously based on practice consistency, intensity, quality of instruction, accumulated mental conditioning, life circumstances, and individual capacity. Some practitioners experience occasional brief Dhyana moments within months of consistent Dharana practice; for others, years pass before meditation emerges. Rather than focusing on timeline, commit to consistent practice regardless of apparent progress. The very concern about “how long” represents mental activity preventing the settling necessary for meditation to arise.
Do I need to master all eight limbs before reaching Samadhi?
Traditional texts emphasize establishing ethical living (yama, niyama) and physical comfort (asana, pranayama) as essential foundation while Shankaracharya notably states that “even though the previous five limbs of yoga may not have been perfected, effort should be made at these three [Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi].” This indicates simultaneous development rather than requiring perfection of earlier stages before beginning concentration. However, gross ethical violations, severe physical discomfort, and wild energy disturbance directly impair concentration capacity, making some foundational work necessary.
Is Samadhi the same as enlightenment?
Depends on which Samadhi and how “enlightenment” is defined. Lower forms of Samadhi (Savikalpa/Sabija) involve temporary absorption states that, while profound and transformative, don’t constitute complete liberation. The highest formless Samadhi (Nirvikalpa/Nirbija) produces permanent recognition of one’s true nature as eternal consciousness, which traditional yoga considers liberation (kaivalya). However, even after enlightenment experiences, integration and stabilization in daily life require ongoing work.
Can distractions occur during Dhyana?
No. The defining characteristic of Dhyana involves uninterrupted continuous awareness flowing toward the object without competing thoughts or distractions arising. If distraction occurs requiring conscious return of attention, you’re practicing Dharana (concentration) rather than experiencing Dhyana (meditation). External sounds or sensations may register in peripheral awareness, but they don’t interrupt the meditation’s continuous flow or hijack primary attention.
Should I aim for Samadhi or be content with concentration?
This depends on your goals and life situation. If seeking complete spiritual liberation, then yes – Samadhi (particularly Nirbija Samadhi) represents the ultimate goal toward which all practice aims. However, the immediate practical approach involves focusing on Dharana practice without demanding Samadhi experiences. Paradoxically, releasing demand for advanced states while practicing concentration consistently creates better conditions for meditation and absorption to emerge naturally than grasping after experiences beyond current capacity.
Do Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi require specific objects?
These three stages can develop with any proper meditation object – breath, mantra, visual form, chakra, or concept. The object matters less than the progressively deepening relationship with it. However, some objects suit certain temperaments or stages better. Gross physical objects (breath, visual forms) may prove more accessible for establishing initial Dharana. Subtler objects (concepts, pure awareness) become appropriate as capacity develops. Ultimately, the highest Samadhi transcends all objects entirely, resting in consciousness alone.
Conclusion
The three inner limbs of yoga – Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi – represent not separate practices but rather progressive stages of consciousness deepening its engagement with meditation objects until ultimate absorption reveals the eternal witness beyond all objectification. Dharana establishes concentrated attention through effortful return of wandering awareness; Dhyana emerges naturally when concentration matures into effortless continuous absorption; Samadhi arises spontaneously when meditation deepens beyond subject-object separation into complete unity. Together as Samyama, these three stages constitute the heart of authentic yoga practice, progressively refining consciousness from scattered distraction to supreme self-recognition.
The practical wisdom for contemporary practitioners involves clearly recognizing that regardless of experience level, most meditation time involves Dharana practice – the patient, persistent work of concentration development through countless gentle returns of wandering attention. Rather than striving to force meditation or absorption prematurely, dedicating consistent effort to fundamental concentration practice creates the only genuine foundation from which deeper stages can naturally emerge. The occasional glimpses of effortless meditation or absorptive states serve as encouragement confirming the path’s reality while pointing toward possibilities that sustained practice progressively actualizes.
For students of yoga in 2025 seeking to move beyond physical postures and stress management toward the tradition’s ultimate promise of liberation, understanding these distinctions between concentration, meditation, and absorption illuminates both the journey’s stages and the simple yet profound practice available at each developmental level. By dedicating ourselves to the work actually before us – developing genuine one-pointed concentration through patient practice rather than pretending to stages not yet stabilized – we honor the ancient tradition while creating optimal conditions for consciousness to progressively reveal its own eternal nature through the natural unfolding of Dharana into Dhyana, Dhyana into Samadhi, and Samadhi into complete liberation.
About the Author
Dr. Aryan Mishra – Historian & Cultural Analyst
Dr. Aryan Mishra holds a PhD in Indian Cultural Studies from Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU). With over 20 years of research on ancient Indian history, Hindu philosophy, and cultural heritage, he has authored five books and numerous academic articles. His expertise includes ancient Indian history and civilizations, Hindu philosophy and Vedic traditions, decolonizing Indian historical narratives, and temple architecture and Indian art. Notable works include The Real History of Bharat: Beyond Colonial Narratives and The Dharmic Perspective: Understanding Hindu Civilization. He frequently appears on academic panels and discussions on Indian heritage and has been a guest speaker on national television debates regarding India’s historical and cultural identity.
